Browse by Style

Refers to the movement in American painting, centered mainly in New York, that flourished in the 1940s and 1950s. Incorporating theories of Surrealism, Synthetic Cubism, and Neo-Plasticism, styles ranged from spontaneous, gestural compositions that paid attention to the qualities of the painting materials and stood as records of the painting process, to contemplative, near monochromatic works featuring large areas of color.

Refers to the culture and style of the Acoma, a Native American people living in western New Mexico.

Refers to the style identified with Scottish-born architect Robert Adam (1728-1792), prevalent in Great Britain from 1760-1790. Inspired by archaeological discoveries in Herculaneum and Pompeii, the Adam style is characterized by austere but refined Classical forms, symmetry, detail, and geometric precision.

The conversion of outmoded or unused structures, such as buildings of historic value, and objects, such as software, to new uses or application in new contexts.

Refers to a British and American movement influencing fine and decorative art and architecture in the 1870s and 1880s. Following the philosophy of "art for art's sake", the Aesthetic Movement stressed beauty and the autonomous value of art over didactic purpose, narrative content, or significant subject matter.

Designates the styles, culture, and heritage of Americans of African descent in North America. The styles capture the essence of the African American experience and how personal and political rebellion and triumphs over prejudice and social adversity have enriched and contributed to the music, art, and literature of American culture as a whole.

Refers to the context of or associated specifically with the modern political entity of the United States of America.

Refers to the style and culture of a North American civilization that existed in the "Four Corners" area, where the boundaries of the states of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah intersect. The culture flourished from the first century CE to around 1300 CE, and descendants of this cultural group probably include the modern Pueblo Indians now living in New Mexico and Arizona. The style is noted for fine baskets, pottery, cloth, ornaments, tools, and great architectural achievements, including cliff dwellings and apartment-house-like villages, or pueblos. In some classification schemes, the modern Pueblo cultures are considered later phases of this people, though most schemes end this culture with the abandonment of the cliff dwellings around 1300 CE.

Generally, a period before a war. Specifically refers to a period or activity before the American Civil War (1861-1865).

Style and culture of the descendents of the Athabascan family who migrated to the Southwest in the 10th century. Over time, many bands of Apache were relocated to reservations from their traditional homelands, which once extended through Arizona and New Mexico.

Species of Arbutus found on the west coast of North America, from British Columbia, chiefly Vancouver Island and the Gulf Islands, to California. It is a broadleaf evergreen tree with rich orange-red bark that peels away on the mature wood, leaving a greenish, silvery, smooth appearance.

Culture in North America from around 8000 BCE to 2000 BCE, ending with the adoption of sedentary farming, which varies from place to place in the Americas.

Refers to the culture of the Arikara, an American Plains Indian people who lived along the Missouri River between the Cheyenne River in South Dakota and Fort Berthold in North Dakota. The Arikara, a Caddoan-speaking people, were culturally related to the Pawnee, from whom they broke away and moved gradually northward, becoming the northernmost Caddoan tribe. Wars and smallpox epidemics severely reduced their numbers by the 19th century.

Refers to the style predominently of architecture and the decorative arts, widely disseminated in Europe and the United States in the 1920s and 1930s, which became popular after the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Modernes in Paris in 1925. The style is characterized by a synthesis of industrial and fine arts materials used to create a wide variety of both man-made and mass-produced objects, often with an emphasis on rectilinear motifs, vibrant colors, and elegant, abstracted, simplified forms.

Refers generally to the style of painting, architecture, decorative arts, and applied arts that flourished in Europe and the United States from about 1890 to 1910. The style is characterized by an emphasis on fluid, undulating, or serpentine lines or contours based on organic forms and the use of modern materials such as iron and glass. The style developed as regional variations under various names.

Refers to the English architectural and decorative style in the mid-17th century. Developed by artisans through the use of pattern books, it is characterized by a rough Classicism that reflects regional differences and the work of individual workshops. Architectural elements include hipped roofs, broken pediments, and lugged architraves.

An aesthetic and social movement of the late 19th century that originated in England and spread to the United States, Germany, and Northen Europe. A reaction against industrialization and the quality of manufactured goods, the movement is marked by a desire to revive the craftsmanship associated with traditional arts, a form follows function philiosphy, and an idealized view of the medieval craft guilds.

Refers to a language group of North American Indians that encompasses many linguistic sub-groups and cultural groups. It is an arbitrary term derived from Lake Athabaska by Albert Gallatin in 1836 to refer to a culture that he believed were centered around this area. People belonging to the Athapaskan language group occupy vast areas of the subarctic region as well as areas in New Mexico and Arizona. Spelling of the term varies widely, and often appears in multiple forms in a single source. 'Athapaskan' has been in general use since 1930. 'Dene' or 'Na-Dené' is the self-determined descriptive term used by this group, and is sometimes used synonymously with Athapaska, though is also used to describe a larger category that includes Tlingit and Haida language groups.

The style and culture of the Nahuatl-speaking peoples of the Aztec Empire or Triple Alliance, of late Pre-Columbian central Mexico; flourished ca.1400-1520 CE.

Refers to the style and period of architecture, visual art, decorative art, music, and literature of western Europe and the Americas from about 1590 to 1750. The style is characterized by balance and wholeness, often with an emphasis on spectacle and emotional content, and a tendency toward contrasts of light against dark, mass against void, and the use of strong diagonals and curves.

Refers mainly to the architectural style in Europe especially in large public buildings, from the end of the 19th century until approximately World War I characterized by impressive classical façades, elaborate decoration and sculpture, and spacious interiors.

Refers to an ancient North American culture and style that existed in the area of the current southwest United States from before 1000 BCE to around 750 CE, overlapping with the Ancestral Puebloan culture. It is distinct from earlier cultures in the area by the introduction of basket-weaving technology.

Refers to the culture of the Basque region in the western Pyrenees, spanning the borders of modern France and Spain, which is inhabited by a people of unknown origin who spaek a non-Aryan language.

Refers to the German School of art, design, and architecture active in Weimar from 1919 to 1925, in Dessau from 1925 to 1932, and in Berlin from 1932 to 1933. Training students in both fine art and craftsmanship, it produced objects and building designs intended for mass production using simple, geometric forms.

The nationality, style, and culture of Bavaria in what is today southeast Germany; either the historical duchy or kingdom, or the modern state.

Refers to the style of architecture and city planning originally taught at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris and at other schools in the United States in the 19th and 20th centuries. The style is characterized by an emphasis on the harmonious composition of elements that form a Classical whole, the revival of Baroque and Neoclassical styles, and cities laid out geometrically with wide, grand streets.

Refers generally to any period of high artistic or cultural development. It refers specifically to the period known for luxury and high artistic development in fin de siècle Europe, most notably in France.

Pegs or pins partially inserted into a hole at an edge or end of a workbench to help secure a piece of work or prevent it from sliding off the bench.

Not to be confused with the Algonkin-speaking Blackfoot, another Plains Indian tribe.

Siding in which joints between vertically placed boards are covered by narrow strips of wood.

Culture, period, and styles in the British colonies, typically featuring a combination of British and native characteristics. For works produced in the British colonies of what is now the United States, "American Colonial" is generally used.

Architecture styles belonging to British Isles Medieval cultures.

Refers to a style of architecture dependent on exposed rough concrete as structural form, particularly dating to the 1960s and 1970s, but which is allied to the late works of Le Corbusier, which itself was characterized by raw concrete and undisguised functional features. The term originated from the French béton brut, or 'raw concrete.'

Culture, style, and period of the Christian states of the eastern Mediterranean during the rule of the Byzantine Empire (330 - 1453 CE). Byzantine art and culture was carried throughout much of the Christian world, and lasted into the 16th century in eastern Europe. The style is characterized by imperial and religious subject matter, and a movement away from the original Greek naturalistic forms to favor ritualistic stylization, intended to suggest the spiritual. For the culture and style of the Italian and western Mediterranean Christian world roughly from the third to the mid-ninth century CE, use "Early Christian."

Refers mainly to the style in architecture and decorative arts in Europe and the United States during the second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. Influenced by publications on Byzantine architecture, it is characterized by the round arches, barrel vaults, densely carved foilage, and mosaic decoration typical of that architecture.

Refers to the culture of the confederacy of tribes of North American Indians that composed the Caddoan linguistic family.

Used to describe the modernist movement in architecture as it evolved in California, specifically Los Angeles and the area surrounding it, from the 1930s through the 1960s. Hallmarks of this style are attention to indoor-outdoor living, open plans, rectilinear structures often constructed with steel frames, and extensive use of glass. The term is most often used to refer to the Case Study House Program initiated by John Entenza in 1945, and to modernist residential structures in general. Architects associated with the style are Richard Neutra, Rudolf Schindler, Charles and Ray Eames, Gordon Drake, Albert Frey, John Lautner, Pierre Koenig, and Rafael Soriano. Public perception of this movement is commonly attributed to the photographs of Julius Shulman, as published in architectural and interior design magazines during the 1950s.

Designation applied to a taste for cultural materials that provide a knowing amusement by virtue of their being artlessly mannered and self-conscious, artificial or ostentatious. For the related concept applied to artistic or literary material, use "kitsch."

The culture and nationality of the people in the current nation of Canada.

Refers to the movement in the Gothic Revival period in architecture characterized by the use of Gothic forms in domestic buildings primarily in the United States Northeast and Midwest during the mid-19th century and by the use of the scroll saw in construction. The style reveals an awkward attempt at imitation and implementation of original Gothic proportions and ornamentation such as turrets, spires, and pointed arches, with no sense of logical spatial relationship to the house.

Refers to the culture of the Catawba, a North American Indian tribe of Siouan language stock who inhabited the territory around the Catawba River in the Carolinas. Their main village was on the west side of the river in what is now York county, South Carolina.

In general terms, refers to the movement among architects and engineers, principally Daniel Burnham, William Le Baron Jenney, John Root, and the firm of Dankmar Adler and Louis Sullivan,during the late 19th century that ultimately led to the development of the skyscraper and a distinct modern style of architectural design featuring steel and iron skeletons clad with masonry, simple exterior decoration often in red brick or terracotta, the rejection of historical forms, and the use of blocky geometric volumes.

Style and culture of a subdivision of the Tlingit Indian people in Alaska, on the coast between Cape Fox and Yakutat Bay, known for blankets and other cultural works.

Architecture styles belonging to Chinese cultures.

Refers to English Chinoiserie furniture following the types of design published by cabinet maker Thomas Chippendale in "The Gentleman and Cabinet Maker's Director" in 1754. Applied mostly to small cabinets and chairs, the style is characterized by lattice-work and square and angular forms.

The culture or style of Americans of Chinese descent.

European and American decorative arts and architectural style that reflects fanciful and poetic notions of China influenced by travelers' tales and exports of Asian ceramics, textiles, and art objects.

Refers to English furniture produced in 1750s and 1760s based on the designs of cabinetmaker Thomas Chippendale (1718-1779), characterized by openwork and ornamental carving in a mainly Rococo Style.

Refers to the style of art and architectural ornament seen primarily in the late 17th through late 18th centuries, principally in Spain and its American colonies. The style is named after the family of Madrid architects, particularly Jose de Churriguera, though other architects also contributed to the development and popularization of the style. The style is characterized by an abundance of ornament and detail, combining various elements from earlier Mannerist and Baroque art.

Refers to the movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries governed by the desire of American architects and landscape architects to boost the national standards and prestige of American urban planning and city development through municipal reform and beautification rather than through social reform. With the driving force of the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago (1893), the movement secured the active development of metropolitan park systems and the establishment of reform-motivated art societies in major cities.

Personal liberties that belong to each individual due to his or her status as a citizen of a particular country or community.

A period in Mesoamerica, from around 250 BCE to 900 CE, marked by widespread development of numerous cities and ceremonial centers, and by the rise of large-scale states in three regions: the Basin of Mexico in the Central Highlands, the Valley of Oaxaca in the Southern Highlands and the Maya lowlands. Each region developed unique patterns and styles.

Refers to late 18th- to early 20th-century architecture and ornament based relatively closely on ancient classical forms. For other architecture and art of the late 18th and the 19th centuries that follow principles of classicism, use "Neoclassical."

Includes any manifestation of the material culture of classical Greece and Rome. With reference to the period of late 18th- and 19th-century art and architecture which featured a return to classical principles, use "Neoclassical." With reference to the period of architecture and ornament of the late 18th- to early 20th-century based relatively closely on ancient classical forms, use "Classical Revival."

Refers to the culture of Salish-speaking Indians of the Northwest Pacific Coast of North America, living around the Strait of Georgia, Puget Sound, southern Vancouver Island, much of the Olympic Peninsula, and most of western Washington state.

Secular version of the Gothic style, derived from the college buildings at Oxford and Cambridge; popular in North America from the 1880s to the 1920s for academic buildings and other institutional structures.

Styles, cultures, periods, and movements of Colonial America.

Styles, periods, and culture belonging to Colonial North America. Refers to the culture and style of architecture, furniture, and domestic articles created in the area of the current United States during the period when it was colonized by Europeans, primarily during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It may be also be used to refer to the culture and styles that persisted into the early nineteenth century, after the colonies gained independence. The term generally refers specifically to the culture and styles of the British colonies on the East Coast of the United States, generally not including the French or Spanish colonies. The meaning of the term overlaps with "British Colonial," which is typically used to refer to the cultures and styles in British colonies other than those that existed in the area that is now the United States.

Refers to the movement in architecture and interior design prevalent in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in countries formerly colonized by Great Britain. The style, mostly seen in domestic architecture and promoted as a picturesque 'national' style, is a direct resurrection of building styles of the early colonial periods and of the Neo-Georgian period. In United States west coast, the movement features a revival of Spanish colonial styles.

Spanish colonial style and period as specifically limited to the Americas.

Refers to the process by which a computer is used as a tool in designing architecture, landscape design, cities, transportation infrastructure, engineering projects, automobiles, computer chips, or other objects of any size. The process uses a computer program to provide an interactive drawing tool, with an interface to allow simulation and analysis. In architectural design, the computer typically allows the user to virtually walk through three-dimensional spaces, to view the architecture in position on the proposed site, and to test aspects of stress and support. It is also used to reconstruct ruined buildings and cities, and to depict archaeological sites at different periods of time.

Term coined in 1930 by Theo van Doesburg to characterize a form of non-figurative painting in which the pictorial elements, planes and colors, have no significance other than themselves. He meant to distinguish between other forms of abstraction, indebted to illusionism mimicing the visible or natural world, and paintings that are products of the human mind. The definition was elaborated upon by Max Bill in 1936 in a catalog for the exhibition Zeitprobleme in der Schweizer Malerei und Plastik. In 1960 Bill organized an exhibition of work that fit his definition, and that established Concrete art as an international movement.

Refers especially to certain work in Britain in the 1950s; can also refer to certain American and European works of the 1930s and 1940s.

Refers to the art and architectural movement influenced by Cubism and Futurism and centered in Russia around 1913. The movement was announced in the publication of the Realist Manifesto in 1920, the name coming from one of its proclamations "to construct" art. The style is characterized by simple, precise abstract compositions typically of modern materials, such as steel, glass, and iron.

Belonging to the same time, age, or period as something or someone else, as when the lives of two people occurred during the same time period. Also used in reference to a thing, person, or event that lives or exists in the present time.

Belonging to the same time, age, or period as something or someone else, as when the lives of two people occurred during the same time period. Also used in reference to a thing, person, or event that lives or exists in the present time.

Period and styles of painting, sculpture, graphic arts, and architecture dating from the recent past and present. It differs from modern art in that the term 'Contemporary art' does not carry the implication of a non-traditional style, but instead refers only to the time period in which the work was created. 'Modern' and 'Contemporary' are inherently fluid terms. The term 'Contemporary' is sometimes more narrowly used to refer to art from ca. 1960 or 1970 up to the present. To refer to the current time period without reference to style of art, use "contemporary (generic time frame)".

Mid-19th-century furniture style, characterized by simplicity of design with natural woods, unpolished or painted in pale colors.

Certain picturesque, small rustic houses, primarily of the late 18th and early 19th centuries in England, with an asymmetrical plan and wood siding.

Refers to the period of the movement toward internal renewal in the Roman Catholic Church following and in opposition to the Protestant Reformation in the 16th and early 17th centuries in Europe, beginning from the pontificate of Paul III (1534-49) and the first Council of Trent (1545). Its style is dictated by an intense authoritarian religiosity, and characterized by a sense of gloom and foreboding.

Style and culture of a Native American people living primarily in the U.S. state of Louisiana and speaking Coushatta language, in the Muskogean family.

Refers to the style of architecture, interior design, and decorative arts that prevailed in the United States, ca. 1870 to ca. 1925. As a result of the ever widening influence of the Arts and Crafts Movement in England, the Craftsman style was also based on the rejection of historical styles in favor of a traditional simplicity. Many of the same types of people were involved, such as social reformers, teachers and women's organizations, architects, and designers, as well as the prophets of the movement, John Ruskin and William Morris. In architecture, the style is characterized by modest homes, such as the bungalow, and simple treatment of materials.

Refers to the culture and style of the Cree, a major Algonquian-speaking North American Indian tribe, whose domain included a large area from east of the Hudson and James bays to as far west as Alberta and the Great Slave Lake in what is now Canada. Originally inhabiting a smaller area, they expanded rapidly in the 17th and 18th centuries acquiring firearms through the fur trade, although wars with the Dakota Sioux and Blackfoot, and a severe smallpox epidemic, greatly reduced their numbers. The name Cree is a truncated form of Kristineaux, a French adaptation of the self-name of the James Bay band.

In general, the term usually refers to a culture or style produced by people who were born in the Americas or nearby islands, but who were descended from colonists or slaves, as distinguished from people who arrived directly from Europe or Africa, or who were descended from aboriginal populations. It is used to refer to the cultures of different populations in the context of different regions; its usage is often contradictory from region to region. It refers to the culture and styles produced by white people who had Spanish parents and were born in the Spanish territories of North and South America in the sixteenth through eighteenth centuries; their culture and social position were distinguished from residents who had been born in Spain. In modern usage in the context of Latin America, it may refer to the culture of people born locally but of pure Spanish extraction or specifically to traditions of old-line families of predominantly Spanish descent. The term may also refer to the culture of early South American blacks born in America, as distinguished from blacks brought directly from Africa. In Louisiana in the United States it refers to the culture of either French-speaking white descendants of early French and Spanish settlers or of mulattos speaking a form of French and Spanish patois. It may also refer to the culture of people in the West Indies who were born and naturalized there, but were of Spanish, French, or African descent; in modern usage in the context of the Caribbean, it is often used to refer to Caribbean culture in general, including elements from European, African, Asian, and Amerindian sources.

Theory or method that seeks to humanize modern architecture by moving away from global uniformity and unquestioning reliance on technology, favoring instead solutions drawing on regional traditions and materials, while at the same time maintaining awareness of the universal nature of contemporary culture.

Refers to the international art movement with origins attributed to Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso ca. 1908. It developed in phases and lasted until the early 1920s. The style is characterized by an emphasis on the flat, two-dimensional surface of the picture plane, the rejection of traditional methods of representation, and the dissolution of objects by making several sides visible simultaneously.

Refers to the Dutch artistic movement and periodical of the same name, founded by Theo Van Doesenburg in 1917 and lasting until the early 1930s. The movement advocated the use of pure abstract form to express the universal in art. De Stijl theories formed the basis for the art style known as Neo-Plasticism.

Refers to the philosophical and literary movement associated with the writing of French scholar Jacques Derrida in the 1960s and later applied to the visual arts and architecture in the 1980s. The movement advocates undermining the dominant component in established binary structures, such as nature vs culture, in order to arrive at a new dialectic. In architecture, the style is charcterized by a purposeful displacement of structural elements, resulting in buildings with no specific purpose.

Refers to the culture of the modern nation of the Netherlands, or in general to cultures that have occupied the same area in northwestern Europe along the North Sea. It is often used to distinguish the culture of the northern historic Netherlands from "Flemish," which is the culture of the southern Netherlands or Flanders. It may also be used to refer in general to the culture of Germanic or Teutonic peoples; however, this meaning is seldom found in modern texts.

Refers to the style of artistic production in Dutch colonies featuring a combination of Dutch and native characteristics. Applied to architecture, the style refers especially to structures in South Africa and parts of North America featuring gambrel roofs, overhanging eaves, stepped gables, and brickwork. It also describes furniture produced especially in the East Indies between 1602 and 1942 characterized by twisted legs or bed-posts, canework, and the use of native woods such as satinwood, teak, ebony, and calamander.

The culture, styles, and period of the first centuries of Christianity, by some reckonings through the 9th century. In art, it generally refers to art of Italy and the western Mediterranean from the third to the mid-9th century CE. It is characterized by an adaptation of the artistic language and symbolism of classical antiquity, but generally sacrifices classical ideals of physical beauty and technical perfection to emphasize spirituality and the immaterial world. For the culture, style, and period of eastern Mediterranean Christian from the 4th to the mid-15th century CE, use "Byzantine."

Refers to the beginnings of Gothic architectural style in England, as coined by English architect and antiquarian, Thomas Rickman, in the early 19th century. It originally referred primarily to window tracery, but now is applied more generally to the broader style. The style is evident in the late 12th century, and is characterized by the use of the pointed arch, long narrow windows without mullions, a rectangular plan, and a long, low silhouette broken only by numerous gables.

Refers to the early period of the Renaissance, when the style developed in Central Italy in the mid- to late fourteenth century and spread throughout the peninsula and to northern Europe in the early to mid-15th century. The style moved away from the fantastic, decorative styles of the Medieval period to place new emphasis on the idealized naturalistic world portrayed in the art, architecture, and literature of Classical Greece and Rome.

Refers to the Victorian style between 1837 and about 1850. It is characterized by a progression from earlier Regency forms to revival styles, particularly the Gothic Revival, and a growing interest in ornamentation and heavy forms.

Artist works that manipulate natural earth and stone, altering the terrain of the land itself for artistic purposes. For large-scale outdoor works that otherwise exploit or incorporate aspects of their sites, use the more general term "environmental art." For the results of grading, trenching, or embanking earth, for utilitarian purposes, use "earthworks (engineering works)."

Refers to the decorative and architectural style in 19th century America associated with the furniture designs of Charles Locke Eastlake. In architecture, the style derives forms from furniture design featuring columns resembling table legs, curved brackets, spindles, and knobs of various shapes consisting of circular perforations.

Approach or practice of selecting the best elements from different doctrines, methods, or styles to apply them in a new creation. In the specific context of art or architectural criticism, use to mean borrowing from a variety of visual sources in the creation of a work.

Refers mainly to the style of architecture produced during the reign of Edward VII (1901-1910) though some authors date it from 1890, when the Gothic became less predominant and architectural style became more eclectic, to 1914 when building halted because of World War I. Often noted for its ebullience or opulent and monumental qualities, Edwardian architecture actually reflects the development of several architectural movements, namely the Baroque and Neoclassical Revivals, the Beaux-Arts Style, and the Arts and Crafts Movement.

The Islamic culture and styles that developed in Egypt.

Refers to the style in American and European architecture and decorative arts dating between the late 18th and early 19th centuries and influenced by publications about Egypt and Napoleon's military campaigns. It is characterized by the use of Egyptian forms and motifs including obelisks, pyramids, hieroglyphs, winged solar discs, sphinxes, papyrus, and lotus buds.

Period, culture, and English style of architecture and decorative arts produced during the reign of Elizabeth I between 1551 and 1603. A combination of Gothic, Italian Renaissance, Flemish and French Mannerist, and vernacular styles, it is characterized by elaborate architectural silhouettes, elements suchs as finials, pendants, and strapwork and in decorative arts, rich surface ornamentation.

Refers to the English style of architecture, interior design, and decorative arts from the 1830s to the 1860s, drawn from the Elizabethan period of the sixteenth century. Architects adopted a range of Elizabethan architectural forms including gables, octogonal turrets and lead-paned windows, while designers applied cinquefoils, strapwork, and coats of arms to furniture, silver, and ceramics.

Contemporary works of art, usually outdoors and on a grand scale, that surround or involve the participation of the viewer and that especially exploit or incorporate aspects of their sites. For such works that specifically manipulate the land itself, use "earthworks (sculpture)." For indoor installations that create surroundings that can be entered by the viewer, use "environments (sculpture)." For sculpture that is designed to be placed outdoors but is not especially site-specific, use "outdoor sculpture." For art that utilizes natural physical forces, biological organisms and processes, and performance to illustrate, question, and explain ecological and environmental issues, use "ecological art."

Refers to artwork produced by native Arctic culture, prior to European contact. For names of specific native peoples of the present, use descriptors such as "Chugach," "Inuit," or "Katladlit."

Refers to an international style of art, literature, music, dance, and theater that flourished between 1905 and 1920, especially in Germany. The style is characterized by the abandonment of traditional standards of realism and proportion in favor of expressing the artist's emotions, resulting in distortions of line, color, and form.

Style of timber-framed houses particular to Germany and nearby areas, distinguished by rather small, regular square divisions. Developed from earlier schwellenbau constructions in the mid- to late 14th century; similar in style to the later Tudor Revival style of England.

Architectural designs that are eccentric, outrageous, or unconventional, that jolt or excite the viewer, and that are generally characterized by an unusual juxtaposition of shapes or materials; may be spontaneously constructed, incomplete, or unbuilt.

Refers to movement in America that flourished from around 1785 to 1820 based on the revival of Roman architectural styles in the design of government buildings. The movement, endorsed by Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Latrobe, is driven by the metaphorical concept of the United States as analogous to the Roman Republic in its grandeur and political philosophy.

Refers broadly to the arts of the last two decades of the 19th century. The period is characterized by its artistic and literary spirit of jaded sophistication and self-conscious aestheticism.

Refers to the culture of the southern Netherlands, roughly corresponding to modern Belgium, Luxembourg, and part of France, particularly during the historical period when Flanders was an independent principality.

Art and crafts that are produced in culturally cohesive communities or contexts, and guided by traditional rules or procedures. It includes paintings, ceramics, textiles, sculpture, and other art forms. It is generally distinct from "naive art," which is created by those without formal training, but not necessarily within a cohesive cultural community. It is also distinct from "outsider art," which usually refers specifically to art created or collected according to a philosophy of avoidance of traditional training.

Refers to the French style of architecture and sculpture during the reign of François I from 1515 to 1547. A combination of the Gothic and Renaissance styles and, according to some authors, the Mannerist style, it is associated with the Loire valley chateaux of François I.

Refers to the style in late-19th-century architecture in which Queen Anne and vernacular styles mixed freely with Classical and Gothic elements often producing less rigid, asymmetrical, and complex plans.

Refers to the style of artistic production in French colonies featuring a combination of French and native characteristics.

Styles belonging to French Renaissance-Baroque cultures.

The culture of Canadians of French ancestry, or of early French settlers in Canada.

Inhabited places established as an outpost or for another reason on the frontier of a nation, empire, or other ruling entity.

First used to describe the work of a group of artists working in San Francisco in the late 1950s, and later used as the title of an exhibition held in Callifornia in 1967. The style is characterized by a preoccupation with sick, shocking, and sexually provocative imagery resulting in bizarre combinations of materials such as leather, steel, clay, vinyl, fur, and ceramics.

Refers to the literary and artistic movement centered in Italy that emphasized speed, dynamism, energy and a rejection of the past, which began with the writings of Filippo Tommaso Marinetti in 1909. Futurism also developed in Russia, with more revolutionary and political connotations. In painting, the style is charactersized by a reliance on divisionist techniques until 1912, when it adopted the simultaneous views and distorted planes of Cubism. Futurist ideas in architecture are represented by drawings and city plans of utopian societies.

Refers to the style in architecture, interior design, and decorative arts in Britain and Ireland and spread to the United States during the reigns of George I to George IV, between 1714 and 1830. Some authors omit the reign of George IV and refer to the period ca.1790 to 1830 as Regency. Though Classical forms and motifs dominate, the style encompasses Renaissance and Rococo forms as well as a range of Neoclassical styles such as Pompeiian Revival and Etruscan style.

Refers to the late nineteenth and early twentieth century English style of architecture, furniture, and decorative arts that revived the architectural forms and decorative motifs of the Georgian period from 1714 to 1830. Georgian Revival architecture, like its model, features symmetrical brick facades, pitched roofs, sashes, and fanlights, while furniture design draws from the styles of Adam, Hepplewhite, Sheraton, and Chippendale.

Styles belonging to German Renaissance-Baroque cultures.

Refers to the style and period associated with the Indo-European speakers of Germanic languages whose origins are obscure, but who inhabited southern Sweden, the Danish peninsula, and northern Germany during the late Bronze Age. In later centuries various groups of Germanic peoples migrated south and west at the expense of Celtic peoples and other inhabitants. The artistic styles of the Germanic peoples are often associated with portable objects, including weapons and personal ornaments.

Refers to the movement in architecture and design in the late 1860s and 1870s marked by an aesthetic of wealth and affluence and characterized by elaborate embellishments such as carved wooden latticework and the addition of the veranda derived from the Picturesque period of English architecture of the 1830s. The style is prevalent in resorts such as Cape May and Martha's Vineyard and in opera houses and mansions of the boomtown mining colonies of the old West.

Canon of proportion based on the ratio between two unequal parts of a whole when the proportion of the smaller to the larger is equal to that of the larger to the whole.

Style of architecture and design first popular in the United States in the 1950s, typified by roadside buildings such as coffee shops, motels, gas stations, and signs. The style is characterized by bold, angular forms and an intensive use of steel, glass, and neon inspired by The Space Age, science fiction, and car culture. Although origin of the term is unknown, it is speculated to have come from Googie's Coffee Shop in Los Angeles, California, and has since been used to describe similar designs.

Refers to the style and period that began in northern France in the mid-twelfth century, and spread to the rest of western Europe during the next 100 years. It evolved into the Renaissance at different times in different parts of Europe. The style evolved in cathedral architecture and is characterized by immense interiors, towers, spires, complex and detailed images in stone, paint, and glass, and soaring height facilitated by pointed arches and flying buttresses. The style also flourished in stained glass, sculpture, elaborate altarpieces, wall painting, and manuscript illumination where it typically features bright color, elongated proportions, intricate detail, and emotional narrative content.

Refers to the period and artistic styles associated with the Goths, a Germanic people who probably originated in Scandinavia and migrated to the southern shore of the Baltic Sea after defeating Vandals and other Germanic people in the area, and then migrated to the Black Sea in the second century CE. The term is particularly associated with the great wave of migration in the fifth century CE by the two branches of Goths, the Ostrogoths in Italy and the Visigoths in Spain.

Refers mainly to the style in English and American architecture and decorative arts from the mid-18th century to the mid-19th century. The style is characterized by the use of rosettes, pinnacles, tracery, foils, and polychrome effects inspired by Gothic architecture and reproduced with the aim of historical accuracy.

Use to describe a type of mass-produced American furniture produced in Grand Rapids, Michigan, particularly between the 1850s and 1920s.

Refers to the style of architecture and decorative arts in Europe and the United States from the 1750s to ca. 1840, characterized by the use of Classical Greek forms and ornament. Inspired by 18th century archaeological discoveries, it attempted to closely follow original models.

Methods of design that are conscious of the ozone-depleting and polluting effects of building materials and processes, that encourage energy and natural resource conservation and recyclability, and are, on the whole, ecologically sound.

Refers to the artwork of the Haida-speaking North American Indians of what is now the Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, Can., and the southern part of Prince of Wales Island, Alaska, U.S. The Alaskan Haida are called Kaigani.

Refers to the flowering of literary, musical, and artistic creativity and production that was focused n the primarily African American neighborhood of Harlem in New York City in the 1920s. Artists of the movement were also active in Paris and other cities. The movement radically revitalized the cultural aspirations and confidence of African Americans by exploring the psychological and emotional uniqueness of the African American community through art.

Refers to the highly individualized style that developed in Ireland beginning in the seventh century, particularly in the monastic communities. The style is especially evident in manuscript illuminations and sculpture, and apparently developed from the melding of Germanic Anglo-Saxon, Celtic, and Early Christian art. It is characterized by brilliant colors and opulent ornamentation composed of extremely intricate, interlaced lines, abstract shapes, animals, and flat, stylized human forms.

Refers to the period and style of Gothic art of the late 12th through the 13th centuries in France and elsewhere in Europe, marked by the achievement of Gothic ideals in architecture and other arts. The style is characterized in sculpture and painting by a return to the balance and naturalism of the sculpture of classical Greece and Rome. The style in architecture is often characterized by elegant, lofty proportions, movement toward a sense of greater void than solid, and symmetry in design, which often was not carried out in execution as designs were often altered or left unfinished. In ecclesiastical architecture, designs typically include twin towers on the western facade, shortened transepts, three- or four-story elevations, flying buttresses, central rose windows, and extensive campaigns of ever more sophisticated sculpture and stained glass.

Refers to the Victorian style, mainly in architecture and decorative arts, produced from about 1850 to about 1870. While the Gothic Revival still dominated, High Victorian architecture and decorative arts demonstrate a more eclectic use of Gothic forms and a greater interest in color, texture, and plastic effects.

Refers to the style of interior design and architecture popular in Europe and North America in the 1970s. In interior design, the style is characterized by the re-utilization of industrial materials, products, and equipment for use as home furnishings. In architecture, the style is characterized by the use of sleek lines, space-age materials, and pre-fabricated parts, with the purpose of exploring the limits of technology.

Faiths that occurred in the early years of Buddhism, in South and Southeast Asia. In Hindu-Buddhism, ideas and dieties of the two faiths were combined, as Buddhism first grew out of Hinduism in India in the 6th century BCE.

Culture of a Siouan-speaking tribe of Native Americans, native to the present-day states of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and parts of Iowa and Illinois. The two remaining federally recognized are the Ho-Chunk Nation of Wisconsin and the Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska.

Refers to an early culture and style that existed mainly in the Sonoran Desert of what is now central and southern Arizona. The culture is noted for the first use of irrigation by the southwestern farmers, for the establishment of permanent settlements of pit houses and above-ground apartment-like structures, and for distinctive tools and art works, including ornaments and mosaics fashioned of shells imported from the Gulf of California, clay figurines, and pottery, which is gray ware or buff with decoration in iron red. Some experts believe that the Hohokam arrived in the area around 300 BCE, while others place their arrival around 500 CE. Disagreement also exists regarding their origins, which may be either from Mexico or as descendents of the Cochise people. Further disagreement exists regarding whether their descendants are Papago, Pima, and other Southwestern groups, or if the Hohokam moved out of the area in the fifteenth century.

Style and culture of the westernmost group of Pueblo Indians, situated in what is now northeastern Arizona, on the edge of the Painted Desert. They speak a Shoshonean language of Uto-Aztecan stock. The precise origin of the Hopi is unknown, although it is thought that they and other Pueblo peoples descended from the Ancestral Pueblo (Anasazi).

Style and culture of one of the seven branches of the Lakota Sioux; they fought alongside Sitting Bull in the 1870s. The majority of Hunkpapa Lakota now reside in the Standing Rock Indian Reservation of South and North Dakota.

Existing, constituted, or carried on between different nations.

Refers to the style of architecture that emerged in Holland, France, and Germany after World War I and spread throughout the world, becoming the dominant architectural style until the 1970s. The style is characterized by an emphasis on volume over mass, the use of lightweight, mass-produced, industrial materials, rejection of all ornament and color, repetitive modular forms, and the use of flat surfaces, typically alternating with areas of glass.

Refers to the artwork produced by any member of the North American Indian tribes speaking a language of the Iroquoian family, notably the Cayuga, Cherokee, Huron, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca, and Tuscarora, in addition to the Iroquois proper. The name Iroquois is a French derivation of Irinakhoiw, meaning "rattlesnakes." They call themselves Hodenosaunee, meaning "people of the longhouse." The Iroquoian linguistic groups occupied a continuous territory around Lakes Ontario, Huron, and Erie, in present-day New York state and Pennsylvania and southern Ontario and Quebec.

Styles belonging to Italian Medieval cultures.

A version of the Italianate style, usually restricted to domestic architecture and including a tall tower.

Refers to the style and period that developed after the conquest of Constantinople by the armies of the Fourth Crusade in 1204 and lasted into the early 14th century. The style is particularly evident in southern and central Italy, and was fertilized by the import of Byzantine portable objects, by Greek artists in Italy, and by western artists returning from Byzantine territiories. Italo-Byzantine style is characterized by the merging of Byzantine themes, figural types, and decorative elements with Hellenistic-Roman illusionism, Gothic fluency of line, and local Italian traditions.

Period, culture, and English style in architecture and fine and decorative arts during the reign of James I from 1603 to 1625. Detailed and jewel-like portraits dominate easel and miniature painting while decorative arts are characterized by rich carving, bulb and twist shapes and motifs including coats of arms, thistles, and pomegranates. In architecture, Renaissance forms and motifs combine with details derived from Northern European Mannerism and include features such as Dutch gables, balustrades, and strapwork.

Refers to the style of British architecture, furniture, and decorative arts during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries that revived forms from the Jacobean period of the 17th century. Featuring curved gables, elaborate brick chimneys, and mullioned and transomed windows, Jacobean Revival architecture and decorative motifs were also mixed with Elizabethan Revival and Queen Anne styles.

Refers to the 19th century English revival style in architecture and decorative arts that combines characteristics of both the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods.

Architecture styles belonging to Japanese culture.

Styles belonging to Japanese cultures.

Style, culture, or ethnicity of American people of Japanese heritage.

A Roman Catholic order for men founded in 1540 by St. Ignatius of Loyola, a Spanish soldier who experienced a religious conversion while convalescing from a battle wound. It is a non-contemplative order requiring strict obedience, compliance with Ignatius' Spiritual Exercises, and special loyalty to the pope. The Jesuits abandoned many medieval practices including obligatory regular penances or fasts; a common dress; and the choral recitation of the liturgical office. Other innovations include their very centralized form of authority with life tenure for the head of the order; gradation of members; a probationary period of many years before final vows; and lack of a female branch. Jesuits carry out many kinds of missionary work with special emphasis on education; the order has founded many colleges and universities throughout the world. The Jesuits have been leading apologists for the Roman Catholic Church, particularly during the Counter-Reformation. In more recent times, the order has been highly influential in modernizing the Church.

Refers to the German and Austrian variation of Art Nouveau, named after the magazine "Jugend" that had been published in Munich since 1896. The style differs from Belgian and French Art Nouveau by a more restrained use of decoration. Jugendstil replaced the exuberance and naturalism of other Art Nouveau styles with a comparatively subdued aesthetic that was often almost unrecognizably, or not at all derived from nature.

Refers broadly to artworks in a variety of styles that incorporate some aspect of motion, including machines, mobiles, and actual objects in motion. Orginating between 1913 and 1920 with the works of Marcel Duchamp, Naum Gabo, and Vladamir Tatlin, the style reached its peak in the 1960s.

Refers to the culture of one of the three main divisions of the Sioux. The Lakota had seven main autonomous divisions: Blackfoot; Brulé (Upper and Lower); Hunkpapa; Miniconjou; Oglala; Sans Arcs; and Oohenonpa.

Refers generally to the final years of the Baroque style, from approximately 1675 to 1715..

Refers to the last years of the Gothic period and style in architecture and other arts in Europe, beginning in the late 13th century. The style is marked by ever greater regional differences that often include a tendency toward extreme complexity, effects of surprise and fantasy, ambitious play of light and shade, and overwhelming richness of linear forms. For individual regional styles, see <Medieval regional styles>.

Use with reference to the period c.1250 to as late as 1500 where the terms "Gothic (Medieval)" or "Late Gothic" are not appropriate.

Refers to a period and style of the middle and later decades of the 16th century in Italy and northern Europe. The style is characterized by an evolution from the calm, serene High Renaissance to more emotional, active, asymmetrical compositions with more innovative applications of colors, materials, and techniques. Many works of this period can also be associated with Mannerism.

Refers to the Victorian style, mainly in architecture and decorative arts, produced from about 1870 to about 1901. While the Gothic Revival still dominated, architecture and decorative arts reflected a renewed interest in Classical, Baroque, and vernacular forms and encompassed new influences such as the Queen Anne and the Beaux Arts styles. In decorative arts, the influence of Japanese art objects, the Arts and Crafts movement, and the Aesthetic movement simplified the Victorian tendency toward heavy ornamentation.

Style and culture of the nation of Liberia, a West African state founded in 1822.

General name for a sedimentary rock existing in many varieties, consisting primarily of calcite or dolomite.

Refers to the style of architecture and decorative arts during the reign of Louis XIV from 1643 to 1715. Luxurious yet formal and reflecting Classical and Baroque forms and motifs, the style is associated with the King's patronage and with the furniture, tapestries, and decoration created for his palace at Versailles.

Refers to the style of French interior design and decorative arts between circa 1700 and 1750 during the regency and reign of Louis XV. Essentially Rococo in style, it is characterized by light and fanciful forms, asymmetry, and femininity identified with the Marquise de Pompadour and her circle at court.

Refers to the style in decoration that emerged in the 1750s and dominated during the rule of Louis XVI from 1774 to 1792. Identified with goût grec, the style is characterized by its symmetrical and restrained application of swags, trophies, viturvian scrolls, and floral and ribbon motifs.

Refers to a style and a period in evidence approximately from the 1520s to 1590, developing chiefly in Rome and spreading elsewhere in Europe. The style is characterized by a distancing from the Classical ideal of the Renaissance to create a sense of fantasy, experimentation with color and materials, and a new human form of elongated, pallid, exaggerated elegance.

A metamorphic, hard, dense, crystalline stone primarily composed of calcium carbonate; it is limestone or dolomite that has been metamorphosed with heat and pressure. Pure calcite marble is white, but impurities produce a wide variety of coloring and patterns. It is finely grained and polishes to a smooth, high gloss. It is used primarily for statuary and buildings. Marble has been quarried from sites around the world since at least the 7th century BCE. The term can also refer more broadly to any crystallized carbonate rock, including true marble and certain types of limestone, that will take a polish and can be used for architectural and ornamental purposes.

Edifices erected as commemorative burial places, often but not exclusively limited to large, stately, or imposing edifices for or by a person of distinction. The word is derived from the burial place of Mausolus, ruler of Caria, in whose memory his widow Artemisia raised a splendid tomb at Halicarnassus (ca. 350 BCE).

Style and movement inspired by the architecture and iconography of pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures. Most works date to the 1920s and 1930s; examples include architecture, mosaics, and other works.

Refers to the period beginning in the Christianized Roman Empire in the fifth century and lasting until the Renaissance, which began in the 13th to the 15th century CE, depending upon which country is being discussed. The variety of styles that developed during the Medieval period are generally characterized by an evolution of the Greco-Roman tradition to incorporate Christian themes, the energetic spirit of the Celtic and Germanic peoples, and the thriving new towns populated by free men.

Refers to the cultures of the areas surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, which is bordered by Europe, Asia, and Africa. It particularly refers to the island cultures and those on the mainland of Europe and Asia Minor that border the Mediterranean Sea. It includes cultures that developed in and around the Tyrrhenian, Ionian, Ligurian, Adriatic, and Aegean seas.

Designates the styles of the Pre-Columbian region comprising present-day central and central-southern Mexico, the Yucatán Peninsula, Guatemala, Belize and El Salvador, and parts of Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Culturally, it refers to a set of technological, social, economic, religious and political traits shared by several different cultures, including the Aztec, Huastec, Maya, Mixtec, Olmec, Tarascan, Teotihuacßsn, Toltec, Totonac, West Mexican and Zapotec.

Culture and nationality of the nation of Mexico or its people.

Refers to the movement in Mexico, spearheaded by artists Diego Rivera and David Alfaro Siquieros, which sought to elevate and legitimize mural works as a recognized Mexican art form. The Mexican Muralist School, which included Rufino Tamayo, Juan Soriano, and José Clemente Orozco, politicized the movement, often depicting scenes from the Mexican Revolution, aspects of the nation's modernization, the relentless social upheavals with class struggles in satirical and life-like styles.

Refers to the architectural, interior and product design style that generally describes mid-20th century trends from ca. 1933 to 1965. The term was first used in the book "Mid-Century Modern: Furniture of the 1950s" (1983) by Cara Greenberg. In architecture, the style is characterized by the International Style and Bauhaus movements, the work of Frank Lloyd Wright and Mies van der Rohe. In design, sleek Scandinavian style furniture and objects were influential.

Styles and cultures existing in the extensive area that includes the nations of southwest Asia and northeastern Africa. The term was formerly used to also include Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, and Burma.

Art and practice of designing and building military fortifications and other installations, and building and maintaining lines of military communication and transportation. It includes providing utilities such as water and power to combat armies, design and construction of facilities to transport armies and weapons, particularly heavy artillery, the use or neutralization of conventional explosives, development of topographical maps and engineering intelligence, and the development of equipment necessary to carry out these operations.

Buildings that physically illustrate their name or function in their plan or elevation, for example a dairy stand shaped like a milk bottle.

A style developed in the mid 20th century, characterized by simplicity and lack of decoration to the point of starkness. The movement advocated reducing art to the state of non-art by removing nature and culture, resulting in artwork in pure, simple forms and objects placed randomly. The term can be extended to all art, including literature, design, music, visual art, and performance. With specific reference to the visual arts, the term is used to describe an abstract art movement and style, predominantly of sculpture, that flourished in the mid- and late 1960s. With specific reference to music, it refers to a style that emerged in the United States in the 1960s featuring prolonged repetition of short passages and unvarying harmonies.

Refers to the various styles of English porcelain and earthenware produced by Thomas Minton in Staffordshire beginning in 1793: majolica, Parian ware, Palissy ware, and blue printed earthenware.

Late 19th-century and early 20th-century American decorative arts style, principally with reference to furniture. Use "Mission Style" for a subtype of the Spanish Colonial Revival architecture style.

A subtype of the Spanish Colonial Revival architecture style, characterized by simplicity of form and ornamentation. Use "Mission" for the late 19th-century, early 20th-century American decorative arts style, applied principally to furniture.

Refers to a Native American culture and style evident in North America from around 800 CE to the mid-18th century, when its last representatives, the Natchez, declined and were dispersed. It was prevalent in the southeast and mid-continent in the river valleys of what are now the states of Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Arkansas, Missouri, Kentucky, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, and parts of Wisconsin, Minnesota and the Great Plains. The culture was based on agricultural development of the bottomlands and government by theocratic village-states. Village architecture is characterized by dwellings arranged around oval or pyramidal earth mounds and a central ceremonial plaza. The style of decorated utilitarian and ceremonial objects is characterized by work in copper, shell, stone, clay, and feathers, often with elaborate designs including human figures, animal motifs, and geometric shapes.

Being in existence at this time; although the time frame varies depending upon context, the term generally refers to a person, place, thing, or event dating no earlier than 75 years from the present time.

Period and styles of painting, sculpture, graphic arts, and architecture dating from the late 19th century to the present date and characterized by a rejection of traditional artistic forms and conventions. It typically reflects changing social, economic, and intellectual conditions. Modern art includes numerous movements and theories. It differs from contemporary art, which does not carry the implication of a non-traditional style, but instead refers only to the time period in which the work was created. 'Modern' and 'contemporary' are inherently fluid terms. The term 'modern' sometimes more narrowly refers to art up until the 1960s or 1970s.

Styles, periods, cultures, and movements of America in modern times.

Modern revival styles belonging to European cultures.

Use with reference to the collective actions and objectives of Modernist architecture, especially, but not exclusively, of the International Style. For art, architecture, or design more generally, use "Modernist."

Styles, periods, cultures, and movements of North America in modern times.

A variation of Art Nouveau based on French works and influenced by works of Edward Burne-Jones and William Morris; the term is particularly applied to architecture and furniture design.

The variation of the Art Nouveau movement in Spain. From the 1890s to the early 1900s, the style appeared in the visual and decorative arts, and prominently in the architecture, with special relevance of Antoni Gaudí. Although as a cultural trend it appeared in the whole of Spain, as far as the arts are concerned, it was particularly widespread in Catalonia, and from there the style and the influences extended to other Spanish cities.

Refers to the succession of 20th-century avant-garde art and architectural movements formed in a reaction to social modernity. Modernism was eclipsed by the Post-Modernism movement, which began in the 1970s.

Style and culture of the Native American people who inhabited the upper James River valley of Virginia, or the present-day group in Amherst County, Virginia, claiming descent from these people. Distinct from the "Algonkin" who share the same original Algonquian language heritage, but inhabit Northern Ontario and Quebec along the Ottawa River in Canada.

Nineteenth-century architectural style developed in Monterey, California, as a blend between local adobe structures and Yankee woodwork.

Refers to the style in 19th-century European architecture and decorative arts characterized by Hispano-Moresque forms and motifs such as honey comb vaulting, arabesques, and horseshoe arches.

Formerly used to refer to prehistoric North American people who inhabited the Ohio and Mississippi valleys and other areas, characterized by the erection of mounds. It is now understood that this was not an identifiable culture, but that the mounds were instead constructed by a variety of peoples for various purposes.

Piles of earth heaped up for landmarks, monuments, or as bases for other structures; for piles of earth and other debris resulting from successive superimposed occupation sites, use "tells." For piles of earth built over grave sites, use "burial mounds." Use "cairns" for purposely erected piles of stones.

Refers to the style of artistic production produced by Spanish Christians under Muslim rule from the ninth to the 11th centuries. The style migrated north and is seen in church and monastic architecture, manuscript illumniation, sculpture, and ivory carving, and is characterized by a joining of traditional Spanish folk culture and Moorish forms and motifs.

Refers to the style of architecture and decorative arts that developed in Spain and Portugal during the period when the Moors gradually lost control of the Iberian peninsula, roughly during the 12th to 15th centuries. The term is derived from the Arabic word for vassal and was originally applied to the work executed by Moslem craftsmen working for Christian masters in brick, plaster, wood, and tile work, though it is now applied to all later Medieval Spanish work in the Islamic tradition, and includes bookbinding, textiles, ceramics, ivory, furniture, and wood and metal inlay work. The style is characterized by Muslim forms and motifs such as arabesques, Kufic inscriptions, stalactite work, azulejo, and horseshoe arches.

Refers to art created by non-professional artists or artisans who have not had formal training and are often self-taught. It typically displays the artist's poor grasp of anatomy and lacks mastery of conventional perspective and other hallmarks of trained artists. It includes painting, sculpture, embroidery, quilts, toys, ships' figureheads, decoys, painted targets, and other objects, and often refers to such objects created specifically in 19th- and 20th-century Europe and North America. It is generally distinguished from "outsider art," which includes the more extravagant psychotic drawings and other art created or collected according to a philosophy of the avoidance of, rather than simply a lack of, traditional training. It is also usually distinct from "folk art," which is created according to specific cultural traditions.

Refers to the culture of the Nanticoke, a confederacy of Algonkian-speaking Indians who have lived along the eastern shore of what are now Maryland and southern Delaware. Their culture is related to that of the Delaware and the Conoy. The name Nanticoke means Tidewater People. Today, the Nanticoke are known today as the "Nanticoke Indian Tribe" in Delaware and the "Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape Tribal Nation" in New Jersey.

Refers to the culture of the Narragansett, an Algonkian-speaking Indian tribe that occupied most of what is now the state of Rhode Island west of Narragansett Bay.

Refers to the culture of a North American Indian tribe that inhabited the east side of the lower Mississippi River when European settlers arrived in the area in the early 18th century. Their language was of the Macro-Algonquian phylum, Muskogean family; their culture was agricultural and related to other Muskogean tribes. They are often considered the last survivors of the great Mississippian culture. Their imagery is characterized by references to sun worship, fire, and their midsummer Green Corn festival. Their culture declined and their people were dispersed after the arrival of Europeans. Many Natchez fled to join with the Cherokee or Mvskoke (Creek); today many of their descendents live in the Cherokee and Mvskoke communities in Oklahoma.

Typically reserved to refer narrowly to the cultures of the native peoples of the United States and Canada, excluding the Eskimos and Aleuts. For the indigenous peoples of Canada use the term "First Nations." For the broader concept of the cultures of any native peoples of Central America, South America, North America, or the West Indies who are considered to belong to the Mongoloid division of the human species, use "Amerindian (culture)."

Styles belonging to Native Chaco cultures.

The style and culture of a populous North American Indian group who live primarily in New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah, speaking an Apachean language which is classified in the Athabaskan language family. At some point in prehistory, the Navajo and Apache migrated to the Southwest from Canada, where most other Athabaskan-speaking peoples still live; although the exact timing of the relocation is unknown, it is thought to have been between 1100 and 1500 CE. These early Navajo were mobile hunters and gatherers; after moving to the Southwest, however, they adopted many of the practices of the sedentary, farming Pueblo Indians near whom they settled.

Post-1945 art movement beginning in Russia, organized by Lev Nusberg (born 1937), Francisco Infante (born 1943) and Vyacheslav Koleychuk (born 1941).

Refers to the style of art, predominantly of painting, inspired by German Expressionism that gained popularity in Italy, Germany, and America in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The style is characterized by large, figurative works, crudely and rapidly painted, often with objects imbedded in their surfaces, such as broken plates or straw.

Refers to the French style in architecture and decorative arts during the Second Empire from 1852 to 1871 and characterized by polychromy and decorative motifs such as griffins, masks, lotus buds, and the Greek fret pattern. An eclectic form of Neoclassicism, it was inspired by Greece, Rome, Egypt, and archaeological discoveries in Pompeii as well as the Adam and Louis XVI styles.

Refers to the style of European and American architecture and fine and decorative arts between the mid-18th century and the mid-19th century inspired by archaeological discoveries in the Mediterranean and Near East and characterized by the imitation of Greek and Roman forms and motifs. Also considered a reaction to Rococo opulence, Neoclassical works are often linear, symmetrical, and even severe.

Describes elements of the built environment, primarily in newly constructed suburban areas of the United States, characterized by a mix of land uses, spaces and buildings scaled to pedestrians, public green space, and an emphasis on mass transit rather than on automobiles, elements typical of traditional American small towns; popular from the 1980s. For the American planning movement incorporating neotraditional design principles, use "New Urbanism."

Use with reference to projects sponsored by any of the United States government programs established under the New Deal administration and operating at various times between 1933 and 1943.

Refers to the international movement in architecture begun in the late-1970s. The style is characterized by a combination of a Late-Modernist emphasis on function, technology and purity with Deconstructionist notions of complexity and displacement.

The planning movement in the United States of the 1990s espousing a return to traditional small-town design features for newly constructed suburbs or redeveloped urban neighborhoods. To describe the architectural elements of the movement, incorporating such features as pedestrian spaces, mass transit, and mixed land use, use "Neotraditional."

Culture and style of the Nez Percé Native American people, who now live in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. It is believed they descended from the Old Cordilleran Culture, which moved from the Rocky Mountains.

Refers specifically to Abstract art in which the forms have had no beginning or reference to nature.

Refers to the period and style associated with the Normans, who were Norsemen from Denmark, Norway, and Iceland who raided the European coasts in the eighth and ninth centuries CE, settled in northern France in the early tenth century, reigned over the indigenous Frankish population, adopted their language, and eventually founded the duchy of Normandy. From Normandy, the Normans expanded to the British Isles, southern Italy, and Sicily. The style is particularly evident in designs of weapons and armor, the motte-and-bailey castle, and grand Romanesque ecclesiastical and monastic structures. The style is characterized by the brilliant adaptation and exploitation of indigenous local styles combined with some influences of the Byzantine east, which were introduced to the area by Norman adventurers and pilgrims.

Refers to the 19th-century English architectural style based on Norman forms and motifs such as round arches, battlements, and barrel and groin vaults.

Styles belonging to Northwest Coast Native American cultures.

Refers to the culture of the modern nation of Norway, or in general to the cultures that have occupied the western part of the Scandinavian peninsula in northwestern Europe.

Refers to the culture of the Ojibwa, who were Algonquian-speaking Indians who formerly lived along the northern shore of Lake Huron and both shores of Lake Superior from what is now Minnesota to the Turtle Mountains of North Dakota.

Refers to the style of English domestic architecture in the second half of the nineteenth century and characterized by the use of traditional English materials and forms such as mullioned windows, half-timbered walls, pitched roofs, and tall ornamental chimneys.

A philosophy of architectural design, emerging in the early 20th century, asserting that in structure and appearance a building should be based on organic forms and should harmonize with its natural environment.

Characteristics of oriental art or culture appearing in Western practice.

Refers to art created or collected according to a philosophy of avoidance of the conventional fine art tradition. The concept generally refers to art that fits the ideal described by Jean Dubuffet, who posited that art should be inventive, non-conformist, unprocessed, spontaneous, insulated from all social and cultural influences, "brut," created without thought of financial gain or public recognition, and based upon autonomous inspiration, in direct contrast to the stereotypes of the traditional or official artistic culture. Dubuffet sought such art in the work of psychiatric patients and other insulated individuals. It is generally distinct from "naive art," which is created by those without formal training, but not necessarily in accordance with the principles described above. It is also typically distinct from "folk art," which is made according to the rules and traditions of a particular culture.

Style and culture of either of two distinct North American Indian groups that speak languages of the Numic group of the Uto-Aztecan family.

Includes works influenced by the architectural style of Andrea Palladio; excludes works by Palladio himself.

Architectural movement and style which began in England ca. 1715-1770, and was later seen in The United States in the early 19th century. Taking its inspiration from the work of 16th century Venetian architect Andrea Palladio (1508-1580) and his 17th century British disciple Inigo Jones (1573-1652), the style is seen as a reaction to the Baroque architecture of the time, and was based on the symmetry and forms of classical Greek and Roman temples. Palladian Revival is seen mostly in residential architecture and large country estates.

Refers to the style and culture of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century German settlers in Pennsylvania and their descendants. Their culture is characterized by a retention of traditional German styles of cookery and craftsmanship, often recognized by distinctive decorative motifs, including geometric hex signs painted on barns and floral and other patterns stenciled on furniture and housewares. Some descendents drive horse-drawn buggies, wear simple, traditional clothing, and live according to strict religious principles. The large flow of immigrants from the Rhine area of Germany was encouraged by the religious tolerance of William Penn's colonial government. Immigrants were members of several groups, including Mennonites, Quakers, Amish, Moravians, Schwenckfelders, and Dunkers (or German Baptists); later immigrants included Lutherans and members of the Reformed churches.

Refers to the last phase of Gothic architectural style in England, as coined by English architect and antiquarian, Thomas Rickman, in the early 19th century. The term originally referred primarily to window tracery from the late 14th century, but now is applied more generally to the broader style and to a wider time frame, roughly from 1330 to the 17th century. The style is characterized by density of pattern, the fan vault, the loss of bulky convex pier profiles to favor elements composed of a network of elegant, flat lines, the use of vertical mullions and regular horizontal divisions in window tracery, these same designs continued into the adjoining masonry, and the general effect in interior spaces of a delicate cage lodged inside a sturdy framework.

Aesthetic concept or expression, arising in Europe first in painting of the 18th century and later in architecture of the 19th century, characterized by rough, curious, or irregular forms; it applies particularly to rustic landscapes and crumbling buildings having neither the awe-inspiring grandeur of the Sublime nor the order and regularity of beauty.

Shallow piers or rectangular columns projecting only slightly from a wall and, in classical architecture, conforming with one of the orders.(PDARC) Common also on furniture.

North American Indians who traditionally lived along the Gila and Salt rivers in Arizona, in what was the core area of the prehistoric Hohokam culture. The Pima speak a Uto-Aztecan language and are usually considered to be the descendants of the Hohokam. Like their presumed ancestors, the Pima were traditionally sedentary farmers living in one-room houses and utilizing the rivers for irrigation. Some hunting and gathering were done to supplement the diet, and in drought years, which occurred on the average of one year in five, crop failure made hunting and gathering the sole mode of subsistence. During these dry years jackrabbits and mesquite beans became the group's dietary staples.

Indian peoples who inhabit, or formerly inhabited, the North American Great Plains, which is a vast grassland between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains and from present-day provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan in Canada through the present-day state of Texas in the United States. The area is drained principally by the Missouri and Mississippi rivers; the valleys of this watershed are the most reliable sites from which to obtain fresh water, wood, and most plant foods.

Styles belonging to Plateau Native American cultures.

Refers to a style in Spanish and Spanish Colonial architecture and ornament in the 15th and 16th centuries. The term was first used by Diego Ortiz de Zúñiga in 1677 to describe a facade. It means "silversmith-like" and is characterized by richly ornamented surfaces, as were common in a silversmith's intricate work. The style is derived from Late Gothic, Islamic, and Italian Renaissance art. In architecture the style is typically seen in smaller buildings and is characterized by twisted columns, heraldic escutcheons, sinuous scrolls, and florid, jewelry-like ornament that masks the structure beneath.

Refers to the international art and cultural movement that flourished in Britain and America in the 1950s and 1960s. Influenced by Dada, the movement advocated the use of everyday imagery, such as advertisements, signs, and comic strips, executed in the techniques and graphic styles of mass media. The movement respresented a move toward a more objective, immediate art form after the dominance of Abstract Expressionism.

Refers to the style and period of art and architecture that developed in the 1960s and after, when there was a clear challenge to the dominance of Modernism. Generally speaking, it advocated a pluralistic approach to the arts and it stated that Modernism had failed because of a lack of a coded language of meaning to the viewer. The term was first used by Spanish poet Federico de Onis in 1934 and later by Arnold Toynbee's "A Study of History" in 1938, but it was in the 1970s when it came into wide use in connection with a trend in architecture that employed selective Eclecticism and Historicism. This resulted in structures that displayed a knowledge of Modernism, but also playful, whimsical, applications of Classical elements. In the other arts, such as painting, there was a return to a classical approach to the human figure, style, and composition, often resulting in Old Masters style works, but with updated imagery, such as the inclusion of current celebrities, or artists from the past. In photography, as well as painting, a narrative or story telling approach to work also became popular. By the early 1980s, many work dubbed Postmodern, were purchased by the corporate art market, where large sums were paid for the work of relatively new artists. By the 1990s, Postmodernism showed signs of slowing down in terms of popularity, when more traditional Modernist forms began to re-emerge.

Refers to the movement, centered mostly in the American Midwest among architects, notably Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright, united by the rejection of revivalist styles and by the development of a new architectural vision based on the faithful expression of the natural qualities of a region or nation. The style generally favored elongated horizontal arrangements that blended naturally with the open American landscape.

Refers to the aboriginal Native American cultures that developed in North, South and Central America before the arrival of Europeans beginning in the late 15th century CE. The term is sometimes used more narrowly to only refer to early cultures from Mexico and Central and South America.

Styles belonging to Pre-Columbian Central Mississippi Valley cultures.

Styles of pottery belonging to Pre-Columbian Pueblo cultures.

Periods related to Pre-Columbian Southeastern Woodland cultures.

Refers to the style in fine arts originating from the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, a group of English artists active from 1848 to 1853. Inspired by Italian art prior to Raphael, the style is characterized by Romantic and Medieval themes with moral undertones, bright colors, and close-knit, detailed compositions.

Refers to the period antecedent to the first contemporary written accounts of a people. The time span for this period varies according to specific local habitation patterns and in different scholarly disciplines.

Sites that contain evidence of prehistoric human activity, often through archaeological investigation.

Refers to the art and cultural movement of the mid- to late 1960s that was international in scope, but flourished mainly on the American West Coast. The movement advocated the exploration of the subconscious mind through drugs, sensory deprivation, and a total immersion of the senses through music and light shows. In the visual arts, the style is characterized by obsessively detailed images, ambiguous representations of space, and acidic colors.

Refers mainly to the style of architecture found in the Southwestern United States which draws its inspiration from the Pueblos and the Spanish missions in New Mexico. The style developed at the turn of the 20th century and reached its greatest popularity in the 1920s and 1930s, although it is still commonly used for new buildings. Pueblo Revival imitates the appearance of traditional adobe construction, however through the use of modern materials such as concrete and brick. Typical attributes include rounded corners, irregular parapets, and thick, battered walls used to simulate adobe. Roofs are always flat, and a common feature is the use of wooden roof beams that are often decorative rather than supportive.

A Christian sect that arose in the mid-17th century in England and the American colonies, advocating direct inward apprehension of God, emphasizing the immediacy of Christ's teaching and guidance, and rejecting outward rites and an ordained ministry. The Quaker system of church government centers around the monthly meeting. The group has a long tradition of opposing war and actively working for peace. Quakerism represents the extreme left wing of the 17th-century Puritan movement. Despite the fact that the term "Quaker" was probably originally derisive, it is used by the Quakers themselves today.

Period, culture, and English style in architecture and decorative arts during the reign of Queen Anne from 1702 to 1714 and known for its straightforward simplicity. In architecture it is characterized by red brick, sash windows, and hipped roofs, applied largely to domestic structures. Decorative arts reflect a move toward simple ornamentation with the use of plain veneers, ball and claw feet, cabriole legs, and scallop shell motifs.

Refers to the style of domestic architecture but also of furniture in England and the United States in the late 19th century. Drawn from the architecture of Queen Anne's reign (1702-1714) and mixed with features found in 17th century Dutch architecture, buildings are characterized by asymmetrical or irregular plans, the use of red brick and stone dressing, broken pediments, sash windows, and shaped gables while furniture features cabriole legs.

Refers to the style of Western art that existed from the mid- through the late nineteenth century and developed in reaction to the Romantic style. It is characterized by subject matter, depictions of figures, and techniques that emphasize reality with precision and vividness of detail, including unpleasant characteristics, in contrast to what was considered the idealized, sanitized, and beautified Romantic view of the world. To indicate in a more general sense any phase of artistic tradition where the real is emphasized over the idealized, use "realism (artistic form of expression)."

Refers to the style of architecture and decorative arts produced in England during the regency of George, Prince of Wales from 1811 to 1820 and then including the period of his reign as George IV from 1820 to 1830. Varied in style, furniture and architecture reflect a combination of classical and French Empire styles with Egyptian and Orientalizing motifs.

Revival style found in the United States in the 1930s, that employees elements of Georgian and Regency style prototypes, usually resulting in buildings two stories high with a hipped roof, and brick walls with quoins at the corners and sometimes at the main entrance. Its also often features double-hung windows with shutters; an entrance porch, and a small octagonal window above the door.

Refers to a general consciousness of and loyalty to a distinct subnational or supranational area usually characterized by a common culture, background, or interests. For the specific movement in American painting in the 1930s and 1940s, use "Regionalist."

Refers to the movement within American Scene painting, concentrated in the rural midwestern United States in the 1930s and capturing the flavor of life there in a literal painting style.(PDAT) For the concept of a general consciousness of and loyalty to a distinct subnational or supranational area, use "regionalism."

Use broadly for art depicting religious subjects or for art used in worship.

Refers to the intellectual movement, style, and culture that originated in Italy in the late 14th century, spread throughout Europe, and culminated in the 16th century. Style is characterized by a deliberate reference to the art, architecture, literature, and ideals of Classical Rome and Greece.

Refers to the style in 19th-century European and American architecture and decorative arts initially inspired by the Italian Renaissance and characterized by pilasters, rustication, and classical motifs. Later, it includes Renaissance styles based on regional or national variations such as the Elizabethan and Jacobean revivals and the French Renaissance revival.

A generic style, particularly in the context of clothing fashion and interior design, characterized by harking back to a former style that is nostalgically retrospective, particularly styles from the mid-20th century. Differing from "old-fashioned" in not being antiquated in form or character, but having reference to a previous style that is both not from as distant a time as "old-fashioned" and is still considered desirable and popular.

Refers to that period primarily of decorative art that emerged in France ca. 1700 at the court of Louis XV, and dominated Europe until it was superseded by the Classical Revival in the late 18th century. The style is characterized by opulence, asymmetry, grace, gaiety, and a light palette of colors, in contrast to the heavier forms and darker colors of the Baroque.

Refers to the 19th century style originating in France and spreading to other parts of Europe, England, and the United States, that revived Rococo forms and motifs in interior design and decorative arts. Also applied to painting, it describes the work of artists who sought to recapture the lyricism, color, and vibrant surfaces of Rococo artists, particularly of Watteau.

Refers to the branch of Christianity characterized by a uniform, highly developed ritual canon and organizational structure with doctrinal roots based in the teachings of the Apostles of Jesus Christ in the first century, in the Alexandrian school of theology, and in Augustinian thought. In this religious branch, faith is considered an acceptance of revelation; revelation appears as doctrine. In juridical terms, it refers to the branch of Christianity distinguished as a unified, monolithic sacramental system under the governance of papal authority. Throughout much of its history, the seat of the Pope has been in Rome, thus "Roman Catholicism" is often used to distinguish this concept from the Orthodox Catholic church.

Refers to the style and period most evident during the 11th and 12th centuries in western Europe. The style flourished in architecture with the new growth of cities and the accompanying churches, and the rebuilding of monasteries. The style is noted for regional differences, but overall is characterized by the influence and interpretation of Roman and succeeding architecture, great size, round arches, masonry vaults, and innovations in structure to provide adequate illumination. The style also developed in monumental relief sculpture, stained glass, book illumination, mural painting, ivory carving, and precious metalwork, and is characterized by flat, stylized forms, and richly detailed ornament.

Refers to the style in European and American architecture dating from the 1820s to the end of the 19th century. Based on the style of the 11th- and 12th-century Romanesque church architecture, it is characterized by semicircular arches, groin and barrel vaults, and the spare use of naturalistic ornament.

Refers to the European movement affecting visual arts, literature, music, and to a lesser degree architecture from the mid-18th to the mid-19th centuries. Viewed as a reaction to Neoclassical formality, it stressed emotion and the right to individual expression. Works encompass a range of styles but in general are painterly, dynamic, and reflect an interest in color over line.

Refers to the style of architecture developed in Germany in the mid-19th century. Combining Italian, Early Christian, and Romanesque elements, the style is characterized by arcaded round arches.

Refers to the style of 18th and 19th century European and American architecture and furniture that mimics rough hewn logs or parts of a tree in its construction or decoration. It is especially identified with 18th century English garden furniture and with fanciful outdoor structures such as hermitages and grottoes.

A generic style, particularly in the context of decorative arts and interior design, characterized by the use of rural motifs and themes, especially incorporating furniture made of wood or metal, the main components of which are carved and fretted to resemble the branches of trees. The style that appeared in the mid-18th century with the theme of the idealization of nature and the simple life. The style was especially popular in Switzerland, Germany, Austria, Britain, and the United States.

Prehistoric culture of the American Southwest, which flourished from the mid-thirteenth through sixteenth centuries, and was centered in the Tonto Basin of southeastern Arizona. A farming and trading people, the Salado lived in walled adobe compounds, practiced burial (rather than cremation) of their dead, and created distinctive polychrome ceramics.

Style and culture of a subdivision of the Lakota people who currently live primarily in the Cheyenne River Reservation.

Style characterized by horizontally-oriented low buildings of one or two stories, flat roofs with little or no overhang, broad blank surfaces, few openings, components divided by small modules, materials of plaster, wood, brick, and tile, and colors in the ranges of reddish brown to cream. The style developed in Santa Fe, New Mexico, United States, as a statutory unified building style that incorporated synthesized elements of Pueblo Revival, Territorial, Native American, and American western styles, based on the Santa Fe Governor's Palace, Native American pueblos, and Spanish villages of the upper Rio Grande valley.

Styles belonging to Scandinavian Medieval cultures.

Mid-20th century style of industrial and furniture design characterized by organic shapes, a lack of applied ornament, and extensive use of wood: often teak. Furniture in this style generally conforms to standards of construction, materials and proportion of traditional forms, though streamlined. The term is most often applied to furniture and industrial design such as tableware rather than to architecture, though it is also found in extended use.

Refers to a Scottish architectural style in the mid-nineteenth century that revived forms associated with the traditional Scottish tower house such as machicolations, conical roofs, turrets, bartisans, and battlements.

Describes the works of the groups of German and Austrian artists who rebeled against the Salon system and exhibited independently at the end of the 19th century. The exhibition of art and concerns about the art market formed the basis of the movement. The artists involved were not commited to a particular style but works tend to be lyrical, focus on nature, and avoid modern themes.

Refers to the architectural and decorative arts style in France between 1852 and 1870 during first the presidency and later the Empire of Napoleon III, but also affecting Europe and the United States. Noted for its eclecticism, opulence, and ostentation, the period reflects the revival of several historical styles including the Louis XVI, Gothic, Renaissance, and Baroque styles. In architecture, the style is identified more specifically with public and domestic buildings with mansard roofs, heraldic motifs, pedimented dormers, and French Renaissance detailing.

Refers to a Christian millenarian sect that arose in 1747 in England out of a group of radical Quakers that had adopted the French Camisards' ritual practices of shaking, shouting, dancing, whirling, and singing in tongues; the sect was later spread to the United States by Ann Lee and her disciples. The sect advocates communal living, productive labor, and celibacy. Shaker communities in the United States flourished economically and created a distinctive and influential style of architecture, furniture, and handicraft before the sect declined in the late 19th and 20th centuries. Shaker dances and songs are also admired as folk art and the Shakers are responsible for numerous important inventions.

Refers to the movement in America between 1879 and 1890 headed by John C. Stevens (1855-1940), characterized by the use of wood shingles to cover entire buildings and a predilection for functionalism rather than for historical, learned styles. This movement, which grew out of the Stick and Queen Anne movements, prevailed more among private homes and hotels rather than among industrial or commercial sites and featured free-flowing, open plans with interlocking interior and exterior spaces, irregular elevation, open porches, and irregular roof lines that contributed to an overall pastoral effect.

Nationality, style, and culture of Siena, Tuscany, Italy.

Refers to the culture of the Sioux, a North American Plains Indian people, or confederation of peoples, of Siouan linguistic stock. Sioux is an abbreviation of Nadouessioux, a name originally used to refer to them by the Ojibwa; the word Dakota means "allies." There were three main divisions of the Sioux: Santee, Yankton, and Teton, calling themselves, respectively, Dakota, Nakota, and Lakota.

Refers to the cultures of the continent of South America, which is bounded by the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, Central America, and the Antarctic region.

Style and culture of a North American Indian group who speak Ute, and who at one time occupied what are now southern Utah, northwestern Arizona, southern Nevada, and southeastern California, the latter group being known as the Chemehuevi. Although encroached upon and directed into reservations by the U.S. government in the 19th century, the Southern Paiute had comparatively little friction with settlers and the U.S. military; many found ways to stay on their traditional lands, usually by working on ranches or living on the fringes of the new towns.

A generic style, particulary in the context of decorative arts and interior design, characterized by motifs and elements originating in New Mexico, Arizona, and nearby areas, including influences of Native American and Spanish design.

Styles and cultures Southwestern Native America.

Refers to the period from the mid-1950s through the early 1970s when rocketry was first used to launch satellites and manned missions to extraterrestrial space. Generally applied to works that were inspired by new techniques, materials, and designs developed for space flight; or the images, experiences, or psychological states recorded by astronauts during space missions. The term has been applied to works of art, design, music, and architecture characteristic of this period.

Refers to the style and period dating from the early 16th century through the early 19th century, in areas colonized by Spain, particularly the Americas. The style is mainly seen in paintings, sculpture, and in ecclesiastical and military architecture. The style reflects the tastes of aristocratic landholders and the church, and generally imitates styles current in Spain, the Netherlands, Italy, and France, with some limited influence from native traditions of design and representation.

Refers to the movement in Colonial Revival architecture during the 1920s evident in the building programs of the American West and Southwest and generally features Spanish-style balconies, verandas and arcades, towers, pan-tiled roofs, and plazas and courtyards. Most notably, the style features a lack of architectural moldings and the heavy use of carved or cast ornament, classically-derived columns, window grilles, and wrought iron or turned spindles reminiscent of Spanish colonial architecture in Mexico.

Styles belonging to Spanish Renaissance-Baroque cultures.

Sticks used by wheelwrights to force the outer ends of spokes into the rim.

Any of various hard, strong, durable, malleable alloys of iron and carbon, often with other elements such as manganese, chromium, nickel, molybdenum, copper, tungsten, cobalt, or silicon; widely used as a structural material.

Refers to the theory coined by Vincent J. Scully in 1949 to address the style of mid-19th century American timber-framed domestic architecture and to correlate the desire to express structure with an externally conspicuous and organic wooden frame. The style reflects European traditions based on half-timbered Late Gothic domestic architecture of England, France, and Germany, on Swiss chalet styles, and on Scandinavian and Slavic vernacular building designs.

Style of architecture and design reaching its height in the late 1930s in the United States. In architecture, it is characterized by the use of horizontal lines, round corners, and sometimes nautical elements, such as railings and porthole windows. In design, these elements were expressed in a variety of new materials, such as Bakelite (TM) and chrome.

Period, culture, and British style under the Stuarts, a Scottish and English dynasty of rulers, patrons, and collectors. It particularly refers to the elegant court styles created in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Refers to the international intellectual movement centered mainly in Paris from the 1920s to the late 1940s. Adopting some of the aesthetic experiments of Symbolism and the attitudes of Dada, the movement is characterized by an emphasis on exploring the limits of experience by fusing reality with the instinctual, the subconscious, and the realm of dreams, in order to create an absolute reality.

Structure design that is specifically environmentally conscious, taking into account construction methods and materials that are locally available as well as the building's efficient use of resources, including systems of heating, cooling, power, water, and waste. Provides affordable, adequate shelter with minimal negative effect on the local and global environment; may be replicated and locally maintained.

Development designed to ensure that the utilization of resources and the environment today does not damage prospects for their use by future generations.

Refers to the culture of the modern nation of Sweden, or in general to cultures that have occupied the area of the eastern section of the Scandinavian peninsula in northwestern Europe.

Method of representing things by symbols, or of giving a symbolic character to objects or acts.

Refers to the international intellectual movement that was first applied to literature in the late 19th century, spreading to painting and theater, and influencing European and American literature from the 20th century to the present. Affecting later movements such as Surrealism, it is characterized by a complex synthesis of psychology, mystical and occult practices, and linguistics used to challenge traditional relationships between representation and meaning.

Architectural style originating in the American Southwest, characterized by squared-off adobe construction, brick coping at the top of the structure, square beams rather than round vigas, and relatively formal Victorian-style windows.

A style reminiscent of the cultures of the islands of the South Pacific. Evident after World War II, its popularity is often attributed to returning U.S. soldiers who were exposed to authentic Oceanic culture during wartime service. The term is variously used to describe architecture, interior design, sculpture, and industrial design. The style peaked in the 1950s, but became resurgent as a fad in the early 21st century. For the small greenstone carvings of the Maori culture, use 'hei-tiki'. For authentic free-standing Oceanic sculpture of deities, use 'ki'i.'

Refers to the artwork of the North American Indians of the Northwest Coast who traditionally lived on the mainland and islands around the Skeen and Ness rivers and Milbank Sound in what are now British Columbia, Canada and Alaska. They speak any of three Tsimshian dialects: Niska, coastal Tsimshian, and Kitksan (or Gitksan). Tsimshian is classified as a Penutian language.

Period, culture, and English style in architecture and decorative arts during the reign of Tudor monarchs from 1485 to 1603. Influenced by Flemish Mannerism, architectural motifs and forms include ornamental brickwork, gables, and finials while decorative arts feature ornate silverware and richly carved woodwork.

Refers to the style of English architecture and interior design in the first half of the 19th century and again in the early 20th. Drawn from domestic architecture of the Tudor period dating 1485-1547, architectural forms and decorative motifs include diapered brickwork, half-timbering, stained glass, and Tudor roses, which were often combined with Gothic elements.

Refers to the architectural order characterized by unfluted columns, torus bases, unadorned cushion capitals, and plain friezes.

General reference for the culture and styles of the Iroquois-speaking Native North American tribe called Tuscarora. Their name derives from an Iroquoian term for “hemp gatherers”; they were noted for their use of indigenous hemp for fiber and medicine. They coalesced as a people around the Great Lakes at about the time of the rise of the historic Iroquois tribes' five nations that was based in the area of present New York state. At the time of European settlement in the 16th century, the Tuscarora primarily occupied what is now North Carolina.

Nationality, styles, and culture of Tyrol, Austria, which was formerly a crown land of Austria-Hungary, embracing the present Austrian province of Tyrol and parts of northern Italy.

Activity of clearing, rebuilding, restoring, or refurbishing urban areas.

Term applied to a group of Frank Lloyd Wright's small, single-family houses constructed during the late 1930s and early 1940s and generally characterized by low cost, natural materials, open planning, and a close relationship between the building and the site and climate. The term was coined by the architect.

Nationality, culture, and style of the city of Venice and also of its historic Republic, which flourished from the late 7th century until 1797.

Architecture built of local materials to suit particular local needs, usually of unknown authorship and making little reference to the chief styles or theories of architecture.

Refers to the style of artistic production produced in Great Britain and its colonies from 1837 to 1901 during the reign of Queen Victoria. Typically identified with heavy forms, bold patterns, elaborate ornamentation, and bright colors, the Victorian period encompasses a varied range of Classical and revival styles. However, Gothic forms and motifs that were identified as morally and aesthetically superior dominated.

Refers to the cultures that developed in the region situated along the eastern coast of the Indochinese Peninsula known as modern North and South Vietnam. Artistic production in this region features a broad scope and an intermingling of styles, featuring dynastic temple construction that included variations of tower shrines, sanctuaries, porticoes, molded capitals, and recesses, and grandiose and refined sculptural programs featuring monster figures that decorated corners of architraves, figures of lions, solid snake-like ornamentation reminiscent of Indo-Khmer foliage motifs and Dong Song styles, and large icons and relief panels carved in sensual styles suggestive of Chen-la works. From the 15th through 18th centuries, architectural planning incorporated Confucian and Taoist elements and sculptural styles of this period feature elaborately-colored woodwork based upon the dragon-and-cloud decoration of the Ming and Ch'ing Dynasties of China.

Syle and culture of the Algonquian-speaking, Native American people of Rhode Island, southeastern Massachusetts, and the eastern shore of Narragansett Bay.

Periods, styles, and cultures related to Western North American Paleo-Indians.

Cultures and styles of the more western Pueblo Native American people in the southwestern United States, particularly the Zuñi Desert Puebloans and the Hopi dry-farmers. The distinction between Eastern and Western Pueblo is based on the publications of certain scholars of the 1950s.

The principal tissue of trees and other plants that provides both strength and a means of conducting nutrients. Wood is one of the most versatile materials known.

General term for the cultures and styles represented in prehistoric sites falling in time between approximately 1000 BCE and 1000 CE, between the Archaic hunter-gatherers and the agriculturalist Mississippian cultures; including geographic regions from what is now eastern Canada south of the Subarctic region, the eastern United States, and along to the Gulf of Mexico. Characterized by agriculture, hunting, burial mounds, and a distinctive style of pottery. Over most of this area these cultures were replaced by the Mississippian culture in the 1st millennium CE, but in some regions they survived until historic times.

The style and culture of a division of the Sioux people formerly inhabiting northern Minnesota, now located mainly in North and South Dakota and eastern Montana.

Refers to the German late-18th-century Antique Revival style, known in German as the "pig-tail style."